Organization Communication Theories And Perspectives

Case Study Introduction This case study analysis was written based on the journal How Do You Get Anything Done Around Here? Written by Marian L. Houser and Astrid Sheil. This article has describe that how organization communication theories and perspectives works within a family company. Relationships of key characters Kate Elliott is a recent MBA graduate with two years’ working experience. She got a new product develop case of the Donaldson Family Foods company, if she handle that well, she will become the brand manager of this company. Jeff Donaldson who is the president and the CEO of this family business. Rick Clark is Kate’s immediate supervisor. Tom Kadzinsky a veteran product development specialist of this company. Dave Seavers is from independent research Angie Parker who is the secretary of Mr. Donaldson. Main Concepts Salient issues and problems of this case The management level of this company has lack communication with their employees. The company never empower their employees, which makes all the employees become lazy and more likely to listen the orders from the SMART group. Symptoms of the communication problem The symptoms of the communication are they never empowered their employee. Every decision that employees made must be wait SMART has given its approval. That makes all the employees become lazy and satisfy with their personal situation. Kate even cannot contact with Jeff when she has a situation need to handle in. I think that Kate is veryShow MoreRelatedHow Communication Impact Leadership And The Decision Making Process Of Management1130 Words   |  5 Pages1. Leadership and decision-making, involves knowing how to communicate with the all elements of an organization. This includes employees, managers, and customers. Communication is transmitting information and establishing common meanings (Denhardt, Denhardt, Aristigueta 2013). Each element of management may require a different style of communication. Leaders must be able to adapt communication techniques based on the groups they are communicating with and decisions that affect them (Hatch CunliffeRead MoreClassical Scientific Management Theory And Human Relations Theory1358 Words   |  6 Pagesbe expressing a few of the different theoretical perspectives. This paper will be discussing the Scientific Management, Cultural Perspective, Political-Economic Theory, and Human Relations Theory. It will also be discussing each of the key concepts that are associated within each theoretical perspective. I will state some of the strengths and some of the weaknesses of each theory that was mentioned above. Lastly, my opinion for each of these theories would be provided to give you a look on how theyRead MoreThe Interpretative View Of Organizational Communication1703 Words   |  7 Pages The interpretative view of organizational communication developed from a humanistic approach to organizational behavior. The approach views organizations as cultural centers that develop over time. Consequently, the cultural setting of an organization determines the relationship between the management and the employees as we ll as between the employees. The interpretive organizational communication approach centers on the nature of communication between human beings in their natural environmentsRead MoreThe Theories Of Risk Communications1205 Words   |  5 PagesTheories of Risk Communications: Part 2 This is a review of Sellnow Seeger (2013) chapters five, six, and seven of the course reading utilizing outside materials to provide support. The paper will address chaos theory and coordination theory, their use and their role in emergency communication. Community resilience will be reviewed and its importance examined. News framing theory s role in crisis communication will be evaluated and uses and gratifications theory will be explained. The reviewRead MoreClassical Scientific Management Theory And Human Relations Theory1356 Words   |  6 Pagesbe expressing a few of the different theoretical perspectives. This paper will be discussing the Scientific Management, Cultural Perspective, Political-Economic Theory, and Human Relations Theory. It will also be discussing each of the key concepts that are associated within each theoretical perspective. I will state some of the strengths and some of the weaknesses of each theory that was mentioned above. Lastly, my opinion for eac h of these theories would be provided to give you a look on how theyRead MorePerformance Management : Effective And Efficient Planning1695 Words   |  7 Pagesmanagers, and the organization to succeed. Performance management makes sure the organization gets what the employer expect from the employees (Mathis Jackson, 2012). Performance Management Theories. Performance management is important in any organization that there is no single globally accepted theory of performance management. Different scholars have opined the topic in their ways of understanding and experience. Performance Management Cycle A renowned scholar, Mabey prescribed the theory of performanceRead MoreThe Importance Of A Community Development Practitioners1559 Words   |  7 Pagesreality is that strong feelings can lead to intolerance of others views, resulting in detailed discussions. Instead, what we—as community development practitioners—need are tools that will enable us to forecast situations that might result in a communication impasse. To this end, our task is ensuring that community leaders and other stakeholders are permitted to share and exchange ideas without malicious judgment. This is not to suggest there is not room for disagreement! Indeed, hearty exchange andRead MoreThe Stages Of The Organizational Life Cycle771 Words   |  4 Pages Theories relating to the organizational life cycle either include 4 or 5 stages. Churchill and Lewis (1983) propose an alternate theory of the organizational life cycle where there are 5 stages in the business/organ izational life cycle and each stage is characterized by the owner’s involvement in the business, strategic goals, organizational structure, and the extent of the formal systems. Wikipedia defines the organizational life cycle as , â€Å"The developmental history of an organization fromRead MoreInterpersonal Communication : Social Exchange Theory1581 Words   |  7 PagesInterpersonal Communication: Social Exchange Theory Interpersonal communication can be described as communication that occurs between two or more individuals. While communication can be either verbal, nonverbal, or written, interpersonal communication is more commonly practiced through face to face, verbal communication (Burton, 2011). The interpersonal communication process begins with a â€Å"sender†, which is the person that is communicating a message to another person. The â€Å"receiver† is the personRead MoreTrust, Communication And The Modes Of Existence Essay1652 Words   |  7 PagesTrust, Communication and the Modes of Existence Trust is had by Agariya and Singh (2011) as the variable most used in research to explain the construction of the buyer-seller relationship, basis of relationship marketing. Authors show that trust is fully perceived by the consumer when there is a perfect alignment of competence and goodwill (benevolence) by the representative of the organization, like a employee (Crosby et al., 1990; Ganesan, 1994; Morgan and Hunt, 1994; Doney and Canon, 1997). That

The Human Mind Applies The Concept Of Beauty - 900 Words

The human mind applies the concept of beauty to the objects it perceives. Without a spectator, a creation has no value. Does art require an audience in order to be branded ‘beautiful’? A recent exhibition at the Talbot Rice Gallery titled ‘Beholder’ aimed to answer the contemporary opinion of ‘what is beautiful?’ In this exhibition an artist Anthony Schrag wrote a brief essay that accompanied his work. In it he wrote: â€Å"I think we forget that art objects are just that – objects, paper, pigment, wood and glue, canvas or glass: it is only a thing. But it is us and our human interactions that give these objects meaning, power and beauty.† [1] This statement reconsiders the outlook on how individuals place the term beauty upon. Taking into consideration how taste and life experiences would impact the way the viewer felt towards the artwork before them. The exhibition as a whole displayed various use of subject matter and media, from historic artworks to contemporary internet film pieces. This vast range makes the collection appealing to every audience’s interest. Overall the chosen pieces hung harmoniously together within the gallery’s white walls. All individual in their own right but as a unit create a balanced display of visuals, which mirrors not only the theme of the exhibition but perhaps societies generalised notion of beauty as well. Situated centrally on the wall of the gallery is a piece by Edward Summerton, 2wit 2woo and RSPB. It is titled ‘Flock of Starlings’ (2010).Show MoreRelatedThird Breaking Down His Most Important Philosophies1097 Words   |  5 PagesMichael Diaz Professor Keedy April 17, 2015 Core Comp. II Discovery Draft Part 2 Third-Breaking down his most important philosophies: I. Present and explain in depth the each of the following: A. How he came up with such ideas. B. Provide example/ apply to life: 1. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals 2. Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science 3. Critique of Practical Reason 4. Critique of the Power of Judgment 5. Critique of Pure Reason a. Knowledge b. Metaphysics Topic: Critique ofRead MoreLanguage And The Human Language1235 Words   |  5 Pagesrepresents whole concepts by using symbols as well as combinations of those symbols or in layman’s terms, grammar. Today, scientists argue as to whether or not animals truly have language. In my opinion animals do not have language but rather they have a communication system. I believe language is specific to human beings and cannot universally be applied to the way animals communicate. While I believe animals all possess their own systems to communicate, because they cannot understand or apply the intricaciesRead MoreThe Effects Of Covergirl Makeup On Societies, Economies, And Environments1729 Words   |  7 PagesThe concept of using makeup has been around for centuries. The oldest recollection of the use of cosmetics can be found in Egypt 10,000 B.C.E with the use of scented oils and ointments for skin protection. Then soon after, the Chinese were using makeup to make their faces fair in c omplexion and achieve their standards of beauty. Not long after the Europeans followed. Multitudes of people today use makeup everyday, but we probably do not think twice about its effects on the world around us. The purposeRead MoreThe Idea Of A University1528 Words   |  7 Pagesclarifies â€Å"†¦Knowledge†¦as a natural tendency to refine the mind, and to give it an indisposition†¦towards excesses and enormities of evil†¦It generates within the mind a fastidiousness†¦[which] will create an absolute loathing of certain offenses.† By this Newman means knowledge is an extension of prior understanding. It is more developed and essentially its own good. Delaney, a daily blogger, summarizes Newman’s views on how knowledge plays a role in humans’ lives in Discourse Five: â€Å"Knowledge is its own endRead MoreThe Theory Of Human Intelligence And Its Development Essay1140 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction According to the proposed theory of human intelligence and its development (Sternberg, 1999a), a common set of processes underlies all aspects of intelligence. These processes are hypothesized to be universal. These processes are applied to different kinds of tasks and situations depending on whether a given problem requires practical skills and creative skills. Practical skills used to implement, apply, or put into practice ideas in real-world contexts. It involves individuals applyingRead MoreThe Importance Of The Romantic Period And Feeling Melancholy1486 Words   |  6 PagesPeriod in literature, such elements that expressed relations between perception and reality and naturalistic tendencies played an important role in the transition of new influences and new ways of thinking. After all, it is easier to relate to those concepts when the stories are no longer focused on the empire, but more on the individual and the world that they are a part of instead. The Romantic Period in literature was an era that blossomed throughout the span of the 18th century-- 1785 to 1832, toRead MoreFigurative Language And The Language1305 Words   |  6 Pagesrobust† (Dickens, 1587). This is a beautiful, visual representation of one finding pleasure from what they are reading. Thus, there are different types of linguistic phenomena, one of which is figurative language. 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Paraffin Candles913 Words   |  4 PagesConcept One:Soy Candles vs. Paraffin Candle Headline - use for health The one simple way to prevent health risks found in the air This women was in shock when she learned what toxins were in her candle Four new ways to start breathing healthier - TODAY Headline: eco-conscious 4 things lurching in candles that no one wants you to know about 4 ways to go green and still be girly 4 ways to be eco-conscious without having to eat kale This women was in shock when she learned what was on her sofaRead MoreThe Evolution of Western Thought Essay1502 Words   |  7 PagesThroughout modern history no other period of human evolution has had a greater effect on the way people think than the enlightenment. The philosophers and great thinkers of the enlightenment changed the logic of the human mind for the better and propelled a period of mass advancement in all aspects of society. Western thought progressed over time to help build a more intellectual society. Modern philosophers such as Max Horkheimer and Immanuel Kant incorporated their views of Western Thought intoRead MorePlato And Platos SocratesTheory Of Recollection1018 Words   |  5 PagesRecollection and Socrates Piety. Beauty. Holiness. Justice. Equality. Goodness. At first glance these words seem pretty easy to understand. They characterize life and the actions within it. But, how do humans really know what these values mean? Socrates’ Theory of Recollection is only one example of how philosophers have tried to answer this question of knowledge. In Plato’s dialogue, â€Å"Phaedo† Socrates’ illuminates his Theory of Recollection where he believes that humans have knowledge of these ideals

Chinese Zodiac Sign free essay sample

The year of your birth does not just indicate your age! According to the Chinese system of Astrology, the year of birth indicates a certain phase or aspect of a sixty-year cycle of time. Three systems are used for counting and classifying the years: The ten Heavenly Stems, the twelve Earthly Branches and the twelve Animals. The exact origins of the twelve animal system remain unknown. However, legend has it that, once upon a time, the Jade King was bored, having nothing to do in Heaven. He did not see what was happening on Earth, as he had servants satiating his every wish and desire. He decided that he wanted to see the animals that inhabited the earth so he sent word to his advisors to bring him twelve animals (which he considered to be a good sampling. ) The advisor first sent an invitation to the Rat, telling him to also bring the cat. We will write a custom essay sample on Chinese Zodiac Sign or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The Rats jealousy prevented the cat from actually receiving the invitation. Further invitations were sent on to the Ox, the Tiger, the Rabbit, the Dragon, the Snake, the Horse, the Ram, the Monkey, the Rooster and the Dog, asking for their presence at the palace the following day. When they lined up in front of the king, he found that they numbered only eleven, instead of twelve as he had requested. The king sent his servant down to Earth to retrieve a twelfth animal. The servant ran into a man carrying a Pig, and he hastily grabbed it and delivered it to the king. The animals stood in front of the king in no particular order. The Rat, being smaller than the rest, hopped on the Oxs back and proceeded to play the flute. The king was very impressed by this display. He gave the Rat first place. Second place was given to the Ox for its good sportsmanship, and third was given to the Tiger, who appeared so courageous. Strong family values, take a positive attitude towards life. With the refuse to be cowed or submit, consistent character. Tiger: brave, optimistic , human protector Tiger independent heart strong, love alone and tiger. Gladness with perseverance, indomitable spirit. All things have a well-thought-out plan, heart to wait for opportunity strategy. Tiger is a symbol of good luck, fortune tenacious life, but avoid overcharge. Rabbit: noble silence, hedonist Rabbit naturally gentle honest, generous and elegant noble, be scanty of words. By the welcome and love for others, but easy to be envied. Has a unique temperament and taste, in the design and creation of the two are very good. Quick action may sometimes be reckless, need to pay special attention to your weaknesses. Dragon: confident, an idealist The dragon is the ideal pursuit, to pursue his dream of unremitting efforts. Dragon is a symbol of luck, virtue, peace and long life. Generous enthusiasm, is also very brave and confident. The women he had many suitors. Snake: beautiful and humor, jealous of love The snakes male romantic humor, attractive, and women, beautiful and charming. Judgment is extremely strong, work step by step, shall be climbed to the peak. The snake man of both compassion is also ready to help others. Looks more bold, dress is very exquisite, more attempts to modify themselves. Horse: lively open and bright, the demagog The horse outgoing personality, lively and cheerful, compassionate, popular. Ma Chang has outstanding appearance, know how to dress, is a natural politician. Independent subjective, will do anything in indulge in arbitrary decisions and peremptory actions, not accept the opinions of others. Good at managing money, but love is not too good, do not know how to please the opposite sex. Ram: mercy benevolence, capricious artist Born in the year of goat people are noble, charming, artistic temperament, also love nature. Meek appearance, but seek other tenacity and fighting spirit is unusual. The sheep is the importance of family, love children. Parents. Everything is discreet, but need to strengthen be responsible, initiative and creativity. Monkey : playful and intelligent, individualist The monkey is full of the wisdom of the intellectuals, informative, has a remarkable memory. Monkey like diplomats in a way, to avoid their plight. Warm personality, easy to fall in love with me, but not so simple, not easy to be satisfied. Intelligent ability, can make the time, in the cause of good performance. Rooster: handsome frank, who loves the limelight Chicken have prophetic vision, not trusting of others, but to give advice and support others. Chicken born like dressing up, especially for men. Women of color feel ones own knack in. Born in Dover, material is short of, work also. In love, the feeling of husband and wife is very good, pay attention to the atmosphere. Dog : a very honest, still water runs deep. The dog more pessimistic love nature, seek truth, for life had no prayer. The dog gives unlimited confidence, ready to serve others, respected. In love the dog is honest and upright, encountered trouble only yourself to blame. Pig: selfless, materialist The pig is brave, careful, polite and helpful. Selfless character, can admit their mistakes, but also can forgive the mistakes of others. Others sincerity, absolutely reliable, choice of friends are friend. Suitable for all walks of life, his conscience and hard-working and able to achieve success.

Leo Essays (401 words) - , Term Papers, Research Papers

Leo Proud and intensely individual, I really want to stand out, to be the very best I can be, and to be recognized and appreciated for my unique contributions. Doing something well and being respected for it is extremeluy important to me and I cannot tolerate being in the background, taking orders from otheres, or being "jsut one of the team". I must put my personal stamp on whatever I do, and direct my own course in life. I need to have a place where I can shine, express myself creativelym, and be the one in charge. I have big drezms and determination, spirit, vitality, and enthusiam to bring them into being. I also have a noble romantic heart, and a love of the dramatic, colorful, and wxtravagant. For me it is true that "all the world's a stage" and I secretely ( or perhaps not so secretely) desire to be the Star or Hero in the play. I want to be great and to receive the lkove and applause of an adoring audience evein if the "audience" is just one other special person. I need someone to believe in me and my dreams. Though I appear radiantly self-confident and independent, I am actually very much depenbdent on the affirmation, love. and recognition of others. I cannot bear the thought of being unnoticed or unappreciated. I also love wholeheartedly and genrerously and really know how to make the person I love feel special. I love the magin of "being in love" and know how to keep the romance alive in the relationship. I am also immensely loyal and will defend my loved ones and stand by them to the end-as kibg as they never offent my pride or betray my trust. HowevermI like to be the strong one in a relationship and I really do not share the leading role very easily. Ideally, I need to find a person who is as strong-willed as myself, but who will not tryt to dominate or compete with me. My strengths are my zest and love for life, my creative power, and my warm and generous heart. My primary fault is my tendency to be very egocentric, so concerned with the impression I am making and with my own creative self-expression that I forget there is another, larger world that down not revolve around me. Bibliography: Fox, Kellie.

Wastewater reuse growing unprecedented populations and increasing pressure. The WritePass Journal

Wastewater reuse growing unprecedented populations and increasing pressure. Chapter 1 Wastewater Reuse: An Overview Wastewater reuse growing unprecedented populations and increasing pressure. Chapter 1 Wastewater Reuse: An Overview1.1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Introduction1.2  Ã‚  The Earth’s Water Resources1.1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Types of Water Reuse1.2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Overview of Wastewater Treatment Technology1.1.1  Preliminary Treatment1.1.2  Ã‚  Primary Treatment1.1.3  Secondary Treatment1.1.4  Tertiary and/or Advanced Treatment1.1.5 Disinfection1.2  Ã‚  Types of Contaminants1.2.1  Ã‚  Pathogenic Organisms1.2.2  Ã‚  Inorganic Chemicals1.2.3  Ã‚  Organic ChemicalsChapter 2   Wastewater Reuse Criteria2.1   Introduction2.2   Wastewater Quality for Reuse Applications2.2.1    Wastewater Reuse for Agricultural Irrigation2.2.2   Wastewater Reuse for Industrial Use2.2.3    Wastewater Reuse for Recreational UseReferencesRelated Chapter 1 Wastewater Reuse: An Overview 1.1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Introduction Growing unprecedented populations and increasing pressure on the development of new water resources have prompted a variety of measures to reclaim, recycle and reuse wastewater over the last two or three decades. As part of this trend, some municipalities have commenced to reuse wastewater for non-potable water needs, such as irrigation of golf courses and parks. In a little but increasing number of municipalities, these measures involve the use of treated wastewater to augment the general water supply. A major catalyst for the development of wastewater reuse, recycling and reclamation has been the need to provide alternative water resources to achieve water quantity requirement for industry, irrigation, urban potable and non-potable water applications. The benefits coupled with reusing treated wastewater for supplemental applications prior to disposal or discharge include environmental protection, preservation of high quality water resources and economic advantages. These â€Å"wastewater reuse† projects are made possible by reliability and effectiveness of wastewater treatment technologies that can turn municipal wastewater into reclaimed wastewater that can serve as a supplemental water resource in addition to meeting standards established by the Safe Water Drinking Act. However, important problems remain regarding the levels of testing, monitoring and treatment needed to ensure human health when reclaimed wastewater is consumed for potable purposes. Some engineering and public health professionals oppose in principle to the reuse of wastewater for potable purposes, because standard public health philosophy and engineering practice call for using the purest source possible for drinking water.1 Others worry that existing techniques might not discover all the chemical and microbial contaminants that may be present in reclaimed wastewater. Several guidelines pertaining to potable reuse of wastewater have been issued, but these guidelines o ffer conflicting guidance on whether potable is adoptable and, when it is adoptable, what safeguards should be in place. 1.2  Ã‚  The Earth’s Water Resources Earth is known as the â€Å"Blue Planet† because water is discovered in many places on Earth including in the atmosphere, on the surface of the Earth and within rocks below the surface. The total volume of water on the planet is about 1,360,000,000 km3. About 71 percent of Earth’s surface is covered with water, and the oceans hold about 97 percent of all Earth’s water. Figure 1.1 illustrates the approximate distribution of the locations of water on Earth, of which only about 3 percent of the Earth’s water is classified as freshwater and only about 0.91 percent is discovered in freshwater lakes, swamps, rivers and groundwater supplies available for human consumption. Figure 1.1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Distribution of water in the hydrosphere. The water cycle or hydrologic cycle describes the continuous movement of water within the hydrosphere. This indicates the cyclic movement of water evaporated from water surfaces, land surfaces and snow fields or evapotranspiration from land plants and animals to the atmosphere. Atmospheric moisture condenses into clouds and precipitated to the earth as rain, snow, hail or in some other form. Once the precipitated water has fallen to Earth, it may percolate through soil strata to form groundwater aquifers or runs off into streams, lakes, ponds and the sea. Groundwater and surface water drain toward the sea for recycling. Many sub-cycles to the global-scale hydrologic cycle exist, involving the managed transport of water, such as an aqueduct. Wastewater reuse, reclamation and recycling have become important elements of the hydrologic cycle in industrial, agricultural and urban areas. Figure 1.2 illustrates an overview of the cycling of water from ground water and surface water resources to water treatment plants, industrial, irrigation, municipal application, and to wastewater reclamation and reuse facilities. Figure 1.2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Water reuse application. 1.1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Types of Water Reuse When considering the reuse of treated wastewater for potable purposes, critical distinctions must be made between â€Å"indirect† and â€Å"direct† potable reuse and between â€Å"unplanned† and â€Å"planned† potable reuse. The key distinction between indirect and direct potable reuse is that direct potable reuse does not make use of any environmental barrier. In other words, simply sending treated wastewater from a wastewater treatment facility directly to a potable water-supply distribution system or a potable source treatment facility. This practice is rarely use because of the increased potential risk to public health and the negative public perception. Indirect potable reuse is that the purified reclaimed water is pumped into a raw water supply, such as an underground aquifer or in potable water storage reservoirs, resulting in mixing, dilution and assimilation, thus providing an environmental buffer. Indirect potable reuse can be unplanned and planned. Unplanned indirect potable reuse occurs continuously in the environment. This results when a water supply has a natural source that contains unintentional addition of wastewater. Planned indirect potable reuse is common practice to artificially recharge water supply sources with reclaimed water derived from treated wastewater. The water receives additional treatment prior to distribution. The reason that indirect potable reuse is not considered to cause a health risk is that the treated wastewater benefits from natural treatment from storage in surface water and groundwater aquifer before abstraction to ensure good water quality. 1.2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Overview of Wastewater Treatment Technology The problems surrounding wastewater reuse are essentially related to public health. Only in unusual situations do the substances in sewage significantly downgrade the value of water for other purposes. Many diseases are caused by organisms that may be present in wastewater. In addition, there are many toxic and carcinogenic substances present in wastewater at levels that may or may not be adequate to cause disease. The effective wastewater treatment technology to meet water quality requirements for wastewater reuse applications and to protect public health is a crucial element for wastewater reuse system. Conventional wastewater treatment consists of a combination of physical, chemical and biological processes and operations to eliminate solids, organic matter, pathogens, metals and sometime nutrients from wastewater.2 Common terms used to define different degrees of treatment, in sequence of increasing treatment level are preliminary, primary, secondary, tertiary and/or advanced treatment. In some regions, disinfection step for control pathogenic organisms sometimes follows the last treatment step. Figure 1.3 shows a generalized wastewater treatment diagram. Figure 1.3  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Generalized flow diagram for conventional wastewater treatment 1.1.1  Preliminary Treatment The purpose of preliminary treatment is the removal of sands, solids and rags that would settle in channel and interfere with treatment processes. Removal of these materials is necessary to protect the operation of subsequent treatment units. Preliminary treatment of wastewater typically includes screening, grinding, grit removal, flotation, equalization and flocculation. Treatment equipment such as bar screens, comminutors and grit chambers are adopted as the wastewater first enters a wastewater treatment plant. In grit chambers, the velocity of wastewater through the chamber is retained sufficiently high, so as to avoid the settling of organic solids. Comminutors are sometimes used to supplement course screening and serve to decrease the size of particles so that they will be removed and disposed of in a landfill. 1.1.2  Ã‚  Primary Treatment Primary treatment is the second step in treatment and removes organic and inorganic matters from raw sewage by the physical processes. Primary treatment includes screening to trap solid matters, comminution for removal of large solids, grit removal and sedimentation by gravity to remove suspended solids. In general, about one-half of suspended solids and 20 to 50 percent of the biochemical oxygen demand are removed from the wastewater by primary treatment process. Nutrients, pathogenic organisms, trace elements and potentially toxic organic compounds that are associated with solids in wastewater can also be removed by primary treatment processes. 1.1.3  Secondary Treatment Secondary treatment systems remove the biodegradable dissolved and colloidal matter using an array of biological processes coupled with solid/liquid separation. Biological processes are engineered to provide effective microbiological metabolism of organic substrates dissolved or suspended in wastewater.2 Part of the organic matter is oxidized by the microorganisms, thereby producing carbon dioxide and other end products. The remaining organic matter in wastewater provides the materials and energy needed to sustain the microorganism community. Secondary treatment systems can remove suspended solids and up to 95 percent of the biochemical oxygen demand entering the process, as well as certain organic compounds and significant amount of heavy metals. 1.1.4  Tertiary and/or Advanced Treatment Tertiary and/or advanced treatment is adopted when specific constituents which cannot be removed by primary and secondary treatment must be removed. In general, tertiary treatment refers to additional removal of suspended material by granular medium filtration and chemical coagulation. In other cases, advanced treatment refers to more complete removal of specific constituents, such as ammonia or nitrate removal by ion exchange or total dissolved solids removal by reverse osmosis.2 These processes essentially remove more than 99 percent of all the pollutants from wastewater, producing an almost drinking water quality. 1.1.5 Disinfection The objective of disinfection in the wastewater treatment is to destroy all pathogenic microorganisms. The major groups of pathogenic microorganisms include bacteria, viruses, amoebic cysts and protozoa. In general, disinfection can be achieved by chemical or physical method that destroys pathogens. Chemical methods are based on the addition of a strong acid, alcohol or an oxidizing chemical (such as chlorine, ozone, hydrogen peroxide or bromine). Alternatively, physical methods might include heating, incineration and irradiation with ultraviolet radiation. Disinfection is frequently combined with treatment plant design, but not effectively practiced, because of the reduced effectiveness of ultraviolet radiation or the high cost of chlorine where the water is not sufficiently clear or free of particles. 1.2  Ã‚  Types of Contaminants An important issue for people to understand that there are various types of contaminants that may be in your water. The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water involve a wide spectrum of pathogenic organisms, inorganic chemicals and organic chemical. High concentrations of contaminants can have adverse effects to our health. 1.2.1  Ã‚  Pathogenic Organisms Bacterium in water, also known as pathogenic organism, is a public health hazard with risk factors in nearly all regions of the world. It is evident from the water purification attempts throughout history that human realized that drinking water could be hazardous. Several other infectious diseases can be transmitted by contaminated water. Bacterial diseases include Typhoid fever, Cholera, Shigellosis and Salmonellosis. Gastroenteritis, Hepatitis A and SARS are examples of viral disease. Parasitic diseases, such as Schistosomiasis, Ascariasis and Taeniasis, are also transmitted via water. 1.2.2  Ã‚  Inorganic Chemicals Wastewater contains many inorganics that present known or potential health risks if consumed. These contaminants include such compounds as lead, cadmium, chromium, arsenic, nitrate and sulphate. Arsenic and lead are cumulative chemical poisons that can result in cancer, dermal lesions, peripheral neuropathies and vascular effects. 1.2.3  Ã‚  Organic Chemicals In a 1980 survey, a number of organic chemicals were found in water supplies. The term organic chemicals in this sense mean that they contain carbon atoms, such as chlorinated hydrocarbons, aliphatic compounds, benzenes and phenols, which mean that they are derived from petroleum. Organic chemical can easily combine with human tissue which can cause damage that includes kidney, liver system problems and increased cancer risk. Chapter 2   Wastewater Reuse Criteria 2.1   Introduction The principal issue of concern for consumer of treated wastewater is the quality of this water includes its physical, biological, chemical and radiological characteristics. These concerns therefore necessitate the formulation of criteria, standards and guidelines that are appropriate for the consumers of this water.3 A first stage in establishing wastewater reuse regulations and guidelines is wastewater reuse criteria. Wastewater reuse criteria are principally directed at health and environmental protection and typically address wastewater treatment, reclaimed water quality, treatment reliability, distribution systems and use area controls.2 Wastewater reuse criteria imply an idea condition without a legal basic. Regulations and guidelines are different in that regulations are legally enforceable and spell out specific figures that can be used for enforcement and administrative action, which guidelines do not have legal basic and compliance is voluntary. In theUnited States, the Environment Protection Agency issued guidelines in 1992 that are intended to offer guidance to states, which have not developed their own regulations or guidelines. At the international level, the World Health Organization has developed guidelines for wastewater reuse in agriculture and aquaculture. The World Health Organization guidelines are adopted throughout the world and provide all countries with the necessary information to set their own wastewater reuse regulations or guidelines. 2.2   Wastewater Quality for Reuse Applications Table 2.1 presents general wastewater reuse applications. The types of wastewater reuse may be classified into the following six broad categories include agricultural and landscape irrigation, industrial reuse, groundwater recharge, recreational and environmental, non-potable urban uses and potable reuse. Wastewater reuse can be employed to satisfy the water demand in various fields and contribute to the freshwater resources conservation. Table 2.1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Categories of Wastewater Reuse and Potential Constraints Wastewater reuse categorya Potential constraints Agricultural and landscape irrigation   Ã‚   Crop irrigation Effects of salts on soils and crops.   Ã‚   Commercial nurseries Public health concerns, surface and groundwater pollution, marketability of crops, and public acceptance.   Ã‚   Parks   Ã‚   School yards   Ã‚   Freeway medians   Ã‚   Golf courses   Ã‚   Cemeteries   Ã‚   Greenbelts   Ã‚   Residential areas Industrial reuse   Ã‚   Cooling Scaling, corrosion, biological growth, and fouling; public health concerns.   Ã‚   Boiler feed   Ã‚   Process water   Ã‚   Heavy construction Groundwater recharge   Ã‚   Groundwater replenishment Potential toxicity of chemicals and pathogens.      Salt water intrusion   Ã‚   Subsidence control Recreational and environment   Ã‚   Lakes and ponds Health concerns and eutrophication.   Ã‚   Marsh enhancement   Ã‚   Streamflow augmentation   Ã‚   Fisheries   Ã‚   Snowmaking Non-potable urban uses   Ã‚   Fire protection Public health, foulinf, scaling, corrosion, and biological growth.   Ã‚   Air conditioning   Ã‚   Toilet flushing Potable reuse   Ã‚   Blending in water supply Potential toxic chemicals, public health, and public acceptance.   Ã‚   Pipe-to-pipe water supply a Arranged in descending order of anticipated volume of use. From Asano, T.D., et al., Water Environ. Technol., 4, 36, 1992. 2.2.1    Wastewater Reuse for Agricultural Irrigation By far the biggest user of wastewater is agriculture throughout the entire semi-tropical and arid tropical areas of the world. Agriculture receives 67 percent of total water withdrawal and account for 86 percent of consumption in 2000. In Asia and Africa, an estimated 85 to 90 percent of all the freshwater use is for agriculture. By 2025, agriculture is anticipated to increase its water demands by 1.2 times. Therefore, wastewater reuse is important for sustainable water management. The reuse of wastewater for agriculture has some benefits as well as some disbenefits.4, 5 Benefits include the following: Source of extra irrigation water. Conservation of freshwater for other beneficial uses. Low cost source of a water supply. Alternative way to dispose of wastewater and avoid pollution and sanitary issues. Dependable, continuous water source. Effective use of plant nutrients contained in the wastewater, such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Provides extra treatment of the wastewater before being recharged to the groundwater. Disbenefits include the following: Wastewater not properly treated can cause potential public health issues. Hazardous chemical contamination of groundwater. Certain soluble constituents in the wastewater could be present at concentrations toxic to plants. The wastewater could contain suspended solids that may plug the capillary pores in the soil as well as block nozzles in the water distribution system. Great investment in equipment and land. Regulation, guideline and criteria have been established for the reuse of wastewater for agriculture and are normally based on several parameters, such as public health protection and concentration of components in the water. These components include salinity, boron, exchangeable ions and trace metals are of particular important. Table 2.2 presents the details of guidelines for water quality to be used for agricultural irrigation. These guidelines are established by the Food and Agricultural Organization in United Nation. I.   Salinity As indicated, salinity is the most influential parameter in determining the applicability of water for agricultural irrigation. Salinity refers to the presence of dissolved salts in the soil and water. Table 2.2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Guidelines for Interpretation of Water Quality for Irrigation             Degree of restriction on use Potential irrigation problem Units None Slight to moderate Severe Salinity (affects crop water availability)a EC dS/m 0.7 0.7-3.0 3.0 or, TDS mg/L 450 450-2000 2000 Infiltration (affects infiltration rate of water into the soil. Evaluation using EC and SAR together)b SAR = 0-3 and EC = 0.7 0.7-0.2 0.2 = 3-6 and EC = 1.2 1.2-0.3 0.3 = 6-12 and EC = 1.9 1.9-0.5 0.5 = 12-20 and EC = 2.9 2.9-1.3 1.3 = 20-40 and EC = 5.0 5.0-2.9 2.9 Specific ion toxicity (affects sensitive crops) Sodium (Na)b   Ã‚   Surface irrigation SAR 3 3-9 9   Ã‚   Sprinkler irrigation mg/L 3 3 Chloride (Cl)c   Ã‚   Surface irrigation mg/L 4 4-10 10   Ã‚   Sprinkler irrigation mg/L 3 3 Boron (B) mg/L 0.7 0.7-3.0 3.0 Trace elements (See Table) Miscellaneous effects (affects susceptible crops) Nitrogen (NO3-N)d mg/L 5 5-30 30 Bicarbonate (HCO3) (overhead sprinkling only) mg/L 1.5 1.5-8.5 8.5 pH Normal range 6.5-8.4 a  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   EC = electrical conductivity, a measure of water salinity, report in deciSiemens per meter at 25 °C (dS/m) or in units millimhos per centimeter (mmho/cm). Both are equivalent. TDS = total dissolved solids, report in milligram/liter (mg/L). b  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   SAR = sodium adsorption ratio. At a given SAR, infiltration rate increases as water salinity increases. Evaluate the potential infiltration problem by SAR as modified by EC. c  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   For surface irrigation, most tree crops and woody plants are sensitive to sodium and chloride; use the values shown. Most annual crops are not sensitive. With overhead sprinkler irrigation and low humidity (30%) sodium and chloride may be absorbed through the leaves of sensitive crops. d  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   NO3-N, nitrate nitrogen, reported in terms of elemental nitrogen (NH4-N and organic-N should be included when wastewater is being tested). From Ayers, R.S. and Westcot, D.W., FAO, 7, 11, 54, 69, 1976. There are two assessments that characterize the salinity of water involving measuring total dissolved solids and electrical conductivity. Total dissolved solids refers to the material left in a vessel after evaporation of a filtered water sample and subsequent placed in a drying oven at a defined temperature.6 The total dissolved solids concentration relates to the conductivity of the water. The total dissolved solid can be calculated by multiplying conductivity by a factor, but the factor is not a constant. A factor most often used in agricultural is 640. TDS (mg/L) = EC (mmho/cm or dS/m) Ãâ€" 640   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Electrical conductivity is other measurement that more useful than total dissolved solids because it can be made easily and instantaneously by irrigators in the field. Salts that are dissolved in water conduct electricity. Therefore, the salt in the water is related to the electrical conductivity. Table 2.3 presents general guidelines as to the salinity hazard, total dissolved solids (TDS) and electrical conductivity. Table 2.3  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   General Guidelines for Salinity in Agricultural Irrigation Watera Classificationb    TDS (mg/L) EC (mmhos/cm)c Water for which no detrimental effects are usually noticed 500 0.75 Water that can have detrimental effects on sensitive crops 500-1000 0.75-1.50 Water that can have adverse effects on many crops, requiring careful management practices 1000-2000 1.50-3.00 Water that can be used for tolerant plants on permeable soils with careful management practices 2000-5000 3.00-7.50 a  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Normally only of concern in arid and semiarid parts of the country. b  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Crops vary greatly in their tolerance to salinity (TDS or EC). c  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   EC = electrical conductivity. Adapted from USEPA, Office of Water Program Operations, EPA-430/9-75-001, 1975. The adverse impacts of salinity can be augmented by a soil with poor characteristics (such as high evapotranspiration rates and poor drainage) that can indirectly affect the crop. The only way to control salinity hazard is by applying more water that carries off excess salt and leaches throughout the plant’s root zone. II.   Exchangeable Cations The concentration of exchangeable cations in irrigation water must be considered. The exchangeable cations include sodium, calcium and magnesium. When sodium concentrations are high, the soil permeability is reduced and the soil structure is affected. When calcium is normally the predominant exchangeable cation in soil, the soil tends to have a granular structure which is easily worked and readily permeable. The sodium adsorption ratio has been developed to assess the degree to which sodium in irrigation water and provide an indicator of its potential deleterious effects on soil structure and permeability. The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) of water is defined to the equation below: where:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Na+  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   = sodium Ca2+  Ã‚  Ã‚   = calcium Mg2+  Ã‚  Ã‚   = magnesium For irrigation water containing significant values of bicarbonate, the adjusted sodium adsorption ratio is sometimes used. The equation of adjusted sodium adsorption ratio (SARadj) is defined as follow: where:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   pK’2 – pK’c  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   = empirical constants p (Ca2+ + Mg2+) = negative logarithm of the calcium and magnesium ion concentration in moles/liter p (ALK)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   = negative logarithm of the total alkalinity in milliequivalents/liter For general crops, the tolerance value of SAR and adjusted SAR for irrigation water is 8 to 18. In fact, the calculated SAR values in the range are suitable for sensitive crops. III.   Boron Boron in treated wastewater is a potential hazardous ion for agricultural irrigation at high concentrations of around 1mg/L. The sources of boron in wastewater are normally from household detergents, industrial plants and sewage system where boron fertilizers are used. However, it must be remembered that boron is essential in crop productivity at low concentrations. Boron is also one of the important micronutrients for crops to obtain a high quality and quantity crop yield. As indicated, the deleterious effects for boron can happen on crop. Such effects are dependent on crop sensitivity to boron and boron concentrations in soil. A number of crops have been tested by experiment for boron sensitivity. The boron sensitivity of selected crops is listed in Table 2.4. Table 2.4  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Relative Tolerance of Crops and Ornamentals to Boron Tolerant Semitolerant Sensitive (4.0 mg/L of Boron) (2.0 mg/L of Boron) (1.0 mg/L of Boron) Athel Sunflower, native Pecan Asparagus Potato Walnut, black and Persian or English Palm Cotton, Acala and Pina Jerusalem artichoke Date palm Tomato Navy bean Sugarbeet Sweetpea American elm Mangel Radish Plum Garden beet Field pea Pear Alfafa Ragged-robin rose Apple Gladils Olive Grape (Sultanina andMalaga) Broadbean Barley Kadota fig Onion Wheat Persimmon Turnip Corn Cherry Cabbage Milo Peach Lettuce Oat Apricot Carrot Zinnia Thornless blackberry Pumpkin Orange Bell pepper Avocado Sweet potato Grapefruit Lima bean Lemon (2.0 mg/L of boron) (1.0 mg/L of boron) (0.3 mg/L of boron) Note:  Ã‚   Relative tolerance is based on the boron concentration in irrigation water at which boron toxicity symptoms were observed when plants were grown in sand culture. It does not necessarily indicate a reduction in yield. Tolerance decreases in descending order in each column. From Ayers, R.S. and Westcot, D.W., FAO, 7, 11, 54, 69, 1976. In United Nations, the Food and Agricultural organization issued guidelines for boron concentrations in irrigation water. The guidelines indicate that no issues will occur will occur for crops at boron concentration less than 0.75 mg/L. Between 0.75 and 2.0 mg/L of boron concentrations, increasing problem will exist, and severe problem happen at boron concentration above 2.0 mg/L. Table 2.5 presents the detailed guidelines for the allowable concentration of boron in treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation. Table 2.5  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Limits of Boron in Irrigation Water Permissible Limits (Boron in miligrams per liter or parts per million)    Crop Group Class of water Sensitive Semitolerant Tolerant Excellent 0.33 0.67 1.0 Good 0.33-0.67 0.67-1.33 1.0-2.0 Permissible 0.67-1.0 1.33-2.0 2.0-3.0 Doubtful 1.0-1.25 2.0-2.5 3.0-3.75 Unsuitable 1.25 2.5 3.75 From van der Leeden, F., Troise, F.L., and Todd, D.K., The Water Encyclopedia, 2nd ed., Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 1990, 466. Wastewater treatment systems are not efficient at removing boron unless some form of treatment is carried out, such as chemical precipitation. Some management options can also be adopted to degrade the toxicity of boron in treated wastewater and improve yields. These management options are engineered to provide additional nitrogen to maximize fertility of the soil. IV.   Trace Metals or Elements All wastewater sent to treatment plants contain trace elements. The source of trace element is usually from industrial plant, but wastewater from residences can also have high trace element concentrations. Trace elements normally occur in treated wastewater but at very low concentrations, usually less than a few milligrams per liter with most less than 100 micrograms per liter. Some trace elements are essential for plant and animal growth at low concentrations, but all can exhibit plant toxicity at elevated concentration. The essential trace elements in wastewater include cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, molybdenum, nickel and zinc.7, 8, 9 The concentrations of trace elements in treated wastewater vary with wastewater treatment processes provided and their sources. Typically, the concentrations of trace elements in treated wastewater are in the range where negative effects are not likely to happen in short term. However, long term application of treated wastewater containing trace elements may lead to accumulation of trace elements in soil and may potentially result in groundwater contamination and plant toxicity. The range and recommended maximum concentrations of the trace elements in treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation are presented in Table 2.6. Table 2.6  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Recommended Limits for Constituents in Reclaimed Water for Irrigation7    Long-Term Use Short-Term Use    Constituent (mg/L) (mg/L) Remarks Trace Heavy Metals Aluminium 5.0 20.0 Can cause nonproductivity in acid soils, but soils at pH 5.5 to 8.0 will precipitate the ion and eliminate toxicity. Arsenic 0.10 2.0 Toxicity to plants varies widely, ranging from 12 mg/L forSudangrass to less than 0.05 mg/L for rice. Beryllium 0.10 0.5 Toxicity to plants varies widely, ranging from 5 mg/L for kale to 0.5 mg/L for bush beans. Boron 0.75 2.0 Essential to plant growth, with optimum yields for many obtained at a few-tenths mg/L in nutrient solutions. Toxic to many sensitive plants (e.g., citrus) at 1 mg/L. Usually sufficient quantities in reclaimed water to correct soil deficiencies. Most grasses relatively tolerant at 2.0 to 10 mg/L. Cadmium 0.01 0.05 Toxic to beans, beets, and turnips at concentrations as low as 0.1 mg/L in nutrient solution. Conservative limits recommended. Chromium 0.1 1.0 Not generally recognized as essential growth element.   Conservative limits recommended due to lack of knowledge on toxicity to plants. Cobalt 0.05 5.0 Toxic to tomato plants at 0.1 mg/L in nutrient solution. Tends to be inactivated by neutral and alkaline soils. Copper 0.2 5.0 Toxic to a number of plants at 0.1 to 1.0 mg/L in nutrient solution. Fluoride 1.0 15.0 Inactivated by neutral and alkaline soils. Iron 5.0 20.0 Not toxic to plants in aerated soils, but can contribute to soil acidification and loss of essential phosphorus and molybdenum. Lead 5.0 10.0 Can inhibit plant cell growth at very high concentrations. Lithium 2.5 2.5 Tolerated by most crops at up to 5 mg/L; mobile in soil. Toxic at citrus at low doses recommended limit is 0.075 mg/L. Table 2.6 (continued)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Recommended Limits for Constituents in Reclaimed Water for Irrigation    Long-Term Use Short-Term Use    Constituent (mg/L) (mg/L) Remarks Trace Heavy Metals Manganese 0.2 10 Toxic to a number of crops at a few-tenths to a few mg/L in acid soils. Molybdenum 0.01 0.05 Nontoxic to plants at normal concentrations in soil and water. Can be toxic to livestock if forage is grown in soils with high levels of available molybdenum. Nickel 0.2 2 Toxic to a number of plants at 0.5 to 1.0 mg/L; reduced toxicity at neutral or alkaline pH. Selenium 0.02 0.02 Toxic to plants at low concentrations and to livestock if forage is grown in soils with low levels of added selenium. Tin, Tungsten, Titanium 2 2 Effectively excluded by plants; specific tolerance levels unknown. Vanadium 0.1 1 Toxic to many plants at relatively low concentrations. Zinc 2 10 Toxic to many plants at widely varying concentrations; reduced toxicity at increased pH (6 or above) and in fine-textured or organic soils. Other Parameters Constituent Recommended Limit Remarks pH 6 Most effects of pH on plant growth are indirect (e.g., pH effects on heavy metals toxicity described above). TDS 500-2000 mg/L Below 500mg/L, no detrimental effects are usually noticed. Between 500 and 1000 mg/L, TDS in irrigation water can affect many crops and careful management practices should be followed. Above 2000 mg/L, water can be used regularly only for tolerant plants on permeable soils. Free Chlorine Residual 1 mg/L The secondary treatment processes vary in their effectiveness at the removal of significant trace elements. However, advance treatment process such as carbon adsorption and chemical coagulation can remove over 90 percent of the trace elements from the wastewater. As indicated, some trace elements are toxic at elevated concentrations. Cadmium, copper and molybdenum can be hazardous to animals at concentration too low to affect crops. Cadmium is of special concern as it can accumulate in the food chain. It does not affect ruminants in the little amounts they ingest. Most beef and milk products are unaffected by livestock ingestion of cadmium as it is stored in the kidneys and liver of the animal rather than the muscle tissues or fat. Copper is not harmful to monogastric animals but can be toxic to ruminants. However, the animal’s tolerance to copper increases as available molybdenum increases. Molybdenum may also be hazardous when available in the absence of copper. While zinc and nickel are a lesser concern than cadmium, copper and molybdenum. They have negative effects on plants at lower concentrations than the levels harmful to plants and animals. However, zinc and nickel toxicities are decreased as the pH is increased. 2.2.2   Wastewater Reuse for Industrial Use Treated wastewater can be an important potential source of water for many industries, particularly in water-short regions. The quantity of water used in power generation and manufacturing processes is very large and the availability of unlimited of water was considered as a prerequisite. Wastewater reuse for industrial use has many potential applications, ranging from common housekeeping options to advanced technology implementation. The reuse of wastewater for industry can be adopted through industrial processes, internal recycling and non- industrial reuse of industrial facility effluent. The major industrial categories that use treated wastewater include:7 Evaporative cooling water, Boiler feedwater, Process water, and Irrigation and maintenance of plant grounds, fire protection, and dust control. Among the various industrial users of treated wastewater, cooling water is the greatest single application. All heat from various industrial processes must be removed and the most efficient coolant is water. The water can be a once-through recirculating cooling system or cascading use of cooling water in other applications. Water quality requirements for industrial applications are related to four different issues include scaling, corrosion, biological growth and fouling, which may affect industrial process efficacy and integrity, as well as product quality. These concerns are addressed by the options summarized in Table 2.7. Table 2.7  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Industrial Water Reuse: Concerns, Causes, and Treatment Options Concerns Causes Treatment options Scaling inorganic compounds,salts scaling inhibitor, carbon adsorption, filtration, ion exchange,blowdown rate control Corrosion dissolved and suspended solids pH imbalance corrosion inhibitor,reverse osmosis Biological growth residual organics, ammonia, phosphorous biocides, dispersants, filtration Fouling microbial growth, phosphates, dissolved and suspended solids control of scaling, corrosion, microbial growth, filtrationchemical and physical dispersants From Asano and Levine, 1998. Pathogens in treated wastewater used in industrial applications present potential health risks to workers and public from aerosols and windblown spray. Aerosols contain toxic organic compounds and bacteria, such as Legionella pneumophila, which causes Legionnaire’s disease. In recent years, the net quantity of water used has reduced sharply because water shortages and discharge regulations have made it necessary to treat it before disposing it away. A large quantity of this reduction is achieved by internal reuse. 2.2.3    Wastewater Reuse for Recreational Use The treated wastewater may serve a variety of recreational applications include swimming, boating and fishing. The appearance of treated wastewater is essential when it is used, and treatment for nutrient removal may be adopted. Without nutrient control, there is a potential issue for algae blooms, resulting in odors and eutrophic conditions. The criteria, regulations and guidelines of treated wastewater for recreational purposes will vary with the potential for human contact, as well as the sources of the secondary pollutants, such as body discharges, air contaminants and sewage. The criteria, regulations and guidelines of treated wastewater to be used for recreational applications can be subdivided into the following three groups. I.   Elementary Body Contact Recreational Water This group of treated wastewater used in situations where there is intimate contact between the human body and the water and where there is a potential risk of ingesting a large amount of water which may pose a health risk. The treated wastewater used for contact recreational purposes include swimming, waterskiing, bathing, etc. The methods of transmission of virus may happen due to ingestion of water or via the exposed mucous membranes and skin in protective ski barrier. Swimming pools have been implicated as the adenovirus pharyngitis and conjunctivitis, as well as enterovirus meningitis.10 Some of the diseases transmitted by swimming pool water are listed in Table 2.8. Table 2.8  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Some Diseases Transmitted by Swimming Pool Water Disease Causative agent Conjunctivitis Virus Sinusitis and otitis Streptococci and Staphylococci (propagated by nasal mucus) Certain types of enteritis Some pathogens or certain viruses ingested with water Skin disease:   Ã‚   Eczemas Koch bacillus   Ã‚   Granuloma Mycobacterium marinum   Ã‚   Epidermophytosis Brought about by the fungus that attaches itself to the skin between the toes and is contracted particularly easily when walking on areas around the pool. Typhoid fever Salmonella typhi Dysentery Entamoeba histolytica, Shigella Infectious hepatitis Virus Compiled from Reference 10 and 11. Normally, the criteria, regulations and guidelines of treated wastewater used that are adopted for this group are more stringent. For use in recreational applications where full body contact with the water is permitted, the water should be colorless, microbiologically safe and non-irritating eyes or skin. II. Secondary Body Contact Recreational Water This group of treated wastewater used includes fishing, boating, canoeing, camping, and golf course and landscape irrigation. Treated wastewater used for this category should not contain high levels of heavy metals or pathogens that accumulate in fish to degrees that pose health threat to the consumers. The recommended water quality criteria for body contact and secondary body contact are presented in Table 2.9. References 1    Committee to Evaluate the Viability of Augmenting Potable Water Supplies with Reclaimed Water, Water Science and Technology Board, Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources, National Research Council, Issues in Potable Reuse: The Viability of Augmenting Drinking Water Supplies with Reclaimed Water, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1998. 2    Takashi Asano, Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, Technomic Pub.,Lancaster,Pa., 1998. 3      Donald R. Rowe, Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid, Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, Lewis Pub., Boca Raton, Fla., 1995. 4      Shuval, H. I., Water Renovation and Reuse, Academic Press,New York, 1977. 5       Rowe, D. R., K. Al-Dhowalia, and A. Whitehead, Reuse of Riyadh Treated Wastewater, Project No. 18/1402, King Saud University, The College of Engineering Research Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 1988. 6       USPHA, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 15th ed., American Public Health Association,Washington,D.C., 1980. 7       USEPA, Manual – Guidelines For Water Reuse, EPA/625/R-92/004, Office of Water, Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., September, 1992. 8         Ayers, R. S. and D. W. Westcot, Water Quality for Agriculture, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,Rome, 1976. 9         USEPA, Process Design Manual for Land Treatment of Municipal Wastewater, EPA 625/1-77-008, E1, E2 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., October, 1977. 10   WHO, Report of a WHO Scientific Group, Human Viruses in Water, Wastewater and Soil, TRS 639, WHO, Geneva, 1979. 11   Glossary Water and Wastewater Control Engineering, 3rd ed., American Public Health Association,Washington,D.C., 1981.

How To Market A Brand New Feature With Kathryn From CoSchedule

How To Market A Brand New Feature With Kathryn From Organizing new product launches and telling customers about new features can be a daunting task. It can be difficult to know exactly how to market your products and features to your audience, and you might have trouble coming up with just the right language to attract the attention of your target audience. Today, were chatting  with s product marketing lead, Kathryn Nyhus. Kathryn helps organize product launches and comes up with the specific messaging necessary to speak to our varied customers. She’s a super-smart marketing nerd, which helps her fit right in with the team! Kathryn’s background and how it has helped her in her current position at . How Kathryn has helped get  more organized with the implementation of checklists and timelines. How the team comes up with speaking points for a feature. Some of Kathryn’s favorite techniques and methods of marketing a new feature. How segmenting helps the team tailor their marketing emails to the right audiences. How to continue to market a feature once the initial excitement of its launch fades. Kathryn’s best piece of advice for marketers who are launching a new product or feature. Links: Example of  recent product marketing:  4 New (Mind Blowing) Features Launching This Year + 3 You Should Already Be Using! If you liked today’s show, please subscribe on iTunes to The Actionable Content Marketing Podcast! The podcast is also available on SoundCloud,  Stitcher, and Google Play. Quotes by Kathryn: â€Å"Content marketing is the piece that builds the trust and attracts people and product marketing really starts to develop the relationship.† â€Å"Put yourself in the customer’s shoes of asking, Why do I care? Keep asking yourself, But why?† â€Å"Constantly be in contact with your customers.†

Labor Law And National Labor Relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Labor Law And National Labor Relations - Essay Example This essay discusses that the same act was held in a ruling made by the Sacramento County Superior Court in Ralphs Grocery Co. v United Food and Commercial Workers Union Local 8. The union agents had peacefully staged a picket for five days a week, eight hours per day on the sidewalk apron of Ralph store, which is a private property. They walked back and forth in front of the store’s doors, waving placards and handing out flyers. This was meant to discourage people from shopping in the shop on the ground that its employees were not unionized.The picketers ignored Ralph request to relocate to a distance away from the store. This went on for almost nine months prompting Ralph to file a complaint about trespass against the union in Sacramento County Superior Court. The grocery shops the capability to request an injunction against the protesters who were trespassing in front of its stores in the name of picketing. The board seeks compliance with provisions of NLRA, especially in s ections 7 and 8. It orders Shirelle Company to reinstate the five dismissed workers, start collective bargaining process with the workers and recognize the union as the legal representative body of the employees. The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 protects the welfare and interests of both the unionized and the non-unionized workers. The Board, therefore, holds that the employees in Shirelle Company are protected by the Act and the company has no option but to comply with the relevant provisions concerning staff welfare.... Their main desire was to have the employer afford them and their fellow workers good working conditions. In this case, the Board was of the opinion that even one employee acting solely can satisfy the concerted requirement. It further held that the striking workers had the right to express their dissatisfaction with the working conditions provided by the employer. The board considers this as one of the precedents in resolving the matter of Shirelle and the five dismissed workers. Issues to be resolved Shirelle Company has been in operation since 1983, a cool 27 years without a trade union for the employees. They have a good number of workers who are in charge of various departments within the company. However, the owners, Olga and Gregor Flambe, who are jointly responsible for the labor relations and personnel have not yet registered their employees in any trade union. The company which has been operating for a long time with no trade union for its 40 plus staff has not given the emp loyee the freedom to exercise their rights. The company instead has taken the mandate of resolving labor related disputes using its own mechanisms. This is in contravention of NLRA section 8 (a) 2 where the issue of representation of workers issues is placed under employee led unions, and not company dominated labor organizations. In the Electromation case, the electric company had requested the employees to form committees to deal with their concerns, knowing very well that the committees dominated by the employer do are in contravention of the National Labor Relations Act. In the Electromation, Inc v. NLRB, 35 1148 [1994], the court found out that the initial creation, the structure, and the administration was considerably under the control of the

The Cold War and U.S. Diplomacy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

The Cold War and U.S. Diplomacy - Essay Example However, since he wanted to maintain the good reputation of the country, he intended to have plausible deniability about the matter. As such, he decided to use Cuban citizens who disliked Castro to spearhead the fight while American operatives were not directly included. Kennedy was unsure of this decision but since it had been planned in the Eisenhower administration. He found it difficult to abandon probably because it would undermine Eisenhower’s reign (Kennedy & Sedgwick, 2006). However, after the invasion things went horribly wrong. The invaders were killed, and some of them captured for ransom to the U.S. This became a bureaucratic nightmare. Knowing that the country was in trouble, Kennedy publicly took responsibility for the attack on Cuba and apologized(Presidentprofiles.com, 2013). In addition to this, he consulted with other former presidents like Eisenhower and Nixon in order to find a suitable way alleviate their problem. Due to these actions, Kennedy was able to salvage the reputation of the United States from the drain. 2. Given that the invasion of Cuba was unsuccessful, Kennedy had to come up with contingency measures that wouldensure that his country was not blamed for the outcome of the failed invasion(Presidentprofiles.com, 2013). As such,he had to come up with a proper diplomatic doctrine to suit his situation. The first decision he made was to admit to his mistake publicly. This action was far from intended since the U.S. wanted to deny all claims of involvement. However, to the diplomatic community, admission was suitable,and it neutralized the effects that the invasion had on not only Cubans but also other countries worldwide(Gienow-Hecht, 2010). The United States obtained most of its allies back after this admission of guilt. Back in the country, another problem was emerging. If Kennedyexplained to the citizens that it was not his idea to invade Cuba, but that of his predecessor, he wouldhave created division in the country. Disu nity of such proportion would be catastrophic to the country (Presidentprofiles.com, 2013. Therefore, he decidedto consult with two former presidents in order to show they were in agreement. These consultations yielded alternative steps that the country would take in order to avoid such embarrassment in the future. This action by Kennedy further strengthened the American citizens’ belief in their leadership (Kennedy & Sedgwick, 2006). However, even after the Cubaninvasion failed miserably, Kennedy still wanted involvement with the local affairs of other countries. He explained thatsuch countries were not able to manage their own matters, and this was why he got involved (Kennedy & Sedgwick, 2006). For instance, he still wanted Fidel Castro of Cuba overthrown from power. This is because Castro was an ardent communist while Kennedydisapproved of this method (Sibley, 1998). Kennedy then took up secretive methods that would ensure the U.S. wasnot involved if they failed. He utili zed the CIA for this purpose. Much to his dismay, the CIA, did not follow the orders it was given, and it tried to assassinate Castro on numerous occasion, all of which failed. It is claimed that Castro got wind of these assassination attempts and was infuriated. Castro is rumored by many to be the person behind Kennedy’s assassination (Kennedy & Sedgwick, 2006). Nevertheless, Kennedy’s response to this crisis was outstanding. 3. This diplomatic doctrine had an effect not only on the United States but also on other countries(Gienow-Hecht,

Impact of State Aid on Aer Lingus Essay Example for Free

Impact of State Aid on Aer Lingus Essay Aer Lingus is an airline in the republic of Ireland with a rich history that spans for a period exceeding 66 years. It’s an airline that is thought to hold a very special place in the hearts of most Irish people. In recent times, the airline has experienced difficulties. For example, there were agricultural problems both in England and in Ireland due to the emergence of BSE and Foot and Mouth disease. These are problems that caused the numbers of passengers traveling to various countries to go down. In 2001, workers were in strike due to salary issues and this adversely affected the operations of the Aer Lingus. Global economic crisis emanating from the most powerful economy in the world, the United States together with the September 11 terrorist attacks made many holidaymakers and seasoned passengers to panic and they thus feared traveling. Moreover, lack of funds has been another major problem and this is something that made Sabena and Swissair to close down because of insufficient funds. In fact, this is a problem that was so dangerous to many organizations that even Sabena had gone bankrupt. Due to such events, the major debate has been whether to provide state aid to Aer Lingus or not. The EU has been in the frontline to state that there is no need for the airline to be provided with state aid. On the other hand, some believe that since the government is a shareholder in Aer Lingus it should then use some of the tax payers’ money to inject more cash into the company to save it (Mulcahy, 2002). Since this is a state owned airline, its dependence on aid to raise capital has creates several problems for it. The financial performance of the airline has been undermined for quite a long period of time due to this dependence. However, in comparison to the private sector, state aid in most cases involves writing off the debts to financial institutions like banks. If it were the private sector on this issue, they would not have taken the consideration that such debts may be written off. The idea to use state aid for Aer Lingus may be seen as a bad option. This is so because if it was a private investor at Aer Lingus and they encountered huge debts, such an investor would have considered liquidating the airline and starting all over again using the available assets. But this has not been possible for Aer Lingus since its dependence is on the state to provide it with aid (Doganis, 2001). In 1994, the European Commission sought to approve the guidelines on evaluation proposals relating to state aid for airlines. Approving of the aforementioned proposals would see several conditions being imposed. For example, by relying on state aid, Aer Lingus is going to face the condition that it mustn’t expect additional aid in the coming future. Moreover, state aid according to the commission is not supposed to be used in any way to increase Aer Lingus capacity that may be to the detriment of EU competitors. Moreover, if Aer Lingus obtains this aid, the offer it has in the EU market is not supposed to increase faster compared to overall traffic growth. Aer Lingus is also not supposed to use the state aid to increase its direct competition against other airlines (Doganis, 2006). The impacts of state aid on Aer Lingus did not come with negative effects alone as aforementioned. There has been a success story to tell after state aid that was approved by the EU in mid 1990s. Even though reconstruction success at Aer Lingus took longer compared to Iberia and Air France, cost-cutting was achieved in years 2002 and 2004. State aid that Aer Lingus had received a decade ago had enabled it to survive most crises of that time. Up to early 2005, Aer Lingus still had not been privatized despite the crisis. Early 90s posed problems for Aer Lingus that are still similar to the current problems. The company lost profits amounting to 7% and talks embarked to seek a merger with Ryainar but this did not bear fruits. The management team came up with a recovery plan but the profits realized were still down. This is a problem that continued in 1992 but the appointment of Bernie Cahill as the board chairman saw the government provide more investment in the airline. After the proposal was accepted by the EU, some assets like the computer company and hotels were sold. By 1995, the company realized some profits. These shows the impacts of the state aid on Aer Lingus have been both positive and negative. But for Aer Lingus to survive in the market state aid is required since today, it estimated that the company is losing $2m in a single day. Moreover, the bookings have gone down by a staggering 80% (Barrington and Sweeny, 2001).

Communication Theories Essay -- essays research papers

In interpersonal communication there are many theories that are similar yet different in many ways. The theories can be combined to describe people and how those people interact and communicate with each other. Many of these theories help explain how people in society form impressions of others, how they maintain these impressions, why people interact with certain people in society, and how people will use these impressions that they have formed later on in life. These theories also help people to better understand themselves, to better understand interpersonal communication, and to better understand people in general. There are two theories in interpersonal communication that, despite their differences, can go hand in hand. The first is interaction adaptation theory and the second is emotional contagion theory. These two theories’ similarities and differences and their relevance to my everyday life will be discussed in this paper. These two theories are very important in und erstanding how people interact with others and why people do the things they do sometimes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Interaction adaptation theory defined by Beebe, Beebe, and Redmond (2005) is a â€Å"Theory suggesting that people interact with others by adapting to what others are doing† (p. 190). A way of looking at this theory is by thinking about a mirror. â€Å"Sometimes we relate by mirroring the posture or behavior of others† (p. 190). This theory believes that people will share the same kind of communication patterns when they are communicating together. People will interact in the same way as the other person. There has been a conclusion based on this theory that â€Å"nonverbal cues play a key role in how people adapt to others† (p. 190). If a person is communicating with their friend, who has their arms crossed, than this person might find that they are crossing their arms as well. These types of actions are all conclusions to this theory. People, based on their interactions with others, usually tend to develop similar communication patterns and find themselves mirroring the patterns of the other.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Emotional contagion theory is a little similar to interaction adaptation theory. According to Beebe, Beebe, and Redmond (2005), emotional contagion theory â€Å"suggests that people tend to ‘catch’ the emotions of others† (p. 213). This means that if a person is comm... ...oes for most of the emotions that people feel. I never really noticed any of this before I started writing this paper. I shared this information with my best friend and she was amazed that the way people interact is generally the same within groups in society. She now has a better understanding of the communication patterns and behaviors of people and she is not even in the class.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These theories have helped me to have a clearer understanding of how people interact with others and how they can share emotions. Everybody uses these theories whether they are conscious of it or not. If people did not use these theories than they would not be taught in class. Knowing about these theories and how they work is very beneficial to having better communication and interaction with people who are complete strangers and with people who are friends or even colleagues. The way people interact with others is important to knowing how they will share emotions and behaviors not only now, but also in the future. References Beebe, S., Beebe, S., Redmond, M. (2005). Interpersonal Communication: Relating to   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Others. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Models of Organized Crime Executive Summary Essay

There are two types of organizations within the criminal justice field they are bureaucratic and patron-client organizations. The bureaucratic organization is an organization that enforces the law. However, the patron-client organization chooses to break the law. There are many differences between the groups, but there are a few things that they have in common. This paper will describe the difference between the main models of organized crimes and explain why the models are necessary for understanding crime. Models of Organized Crime Executive Summary The patron-client organization is an association of criminal clients who exchange material and assemble a successful system between the main bosses and prominent political figures. The organization is structured using its hierarchy system that contains one main boss, an underboss, an advisor, Captain, and members (Lyman and Potter, 2007). The organization has a tight bond between the members that exhibits loyalty to each other. As a result, the boss provides protection to their members. The main boss delegate duties to the underboss. The underboss then provides that information to his captains. The captains have members who carry out the tasks also known as doing their dirty work. These commands allow the bosses to stay clear of law enforcement evade apprehension and continue to conduct business as usual. (Lyman and Potter, 2007) Bureaucratic and Patron-client Organizations Bureaucratic organizations are more formal than the patron-client  organization. The bureaucratic structure consists of tougher rules and regulations, and no decisions exist without prior approval. In the patron-client organization, decisions can be made by other members as long as it benefits the organization. Bureaucratic organizations hold the administrators responsible for financial troubles. The patron-client organization holds everyone financially responsible because it involves all members of the success or failure of the organization (Lyman and Potter, 2007). Similarities and differences Criminal organizations resemble the same comparisons. The main purpose is for law enforcement to understand the development of these organizations. According to Mallory (2007) Expert psychologists, sociologist, and criminologist basis models on supporting research, statistics, facts, and information gathered. The information collected focuses on the organizational structure, purpose, cause, members, and its clientele. Each model has incorporated detail specific unique features. Why the models are necessary for understanding organized crime Models are of importance because it recognizes the organization by providing a wide-range of information. This information is very useful to law enforcement because it allows them to invent new strategies of how to deter, prevent, detect and arrest these individuals involved in these organizations. (Lyman and Potter, 2007) The patron-client and bureaucratic organization has one main purpose that is profit. This organization whether legal or illegal has similarities and differences. The structure in both primarily exists with one person in charge of monitoring the success of the organization. These models provide useful information the same as theories. (Lyman and Potter, 2007) Law enforcement uses these tools to allow them, to protect assets while detecting, preventing, apprehending, and deterring the individual’s wrongdoers or a highly developed criminal organization. (Lyman and Potter,  2007) Organized crime is considered as a legitimate institution that makes it harder for its members to be caught by law. Although these organized crime units are sworn to secrecy, police enforcement is continuously looking for ways to apprehend and take down these organizations. References: Lyman, D., & Potter, G. (2007). Understanding Organized Crime (4th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Mallory, S. L. (2007). Understanding Organized Crime. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

The practice of nursing research: appraisal, synthesis, and generation of evidence Essay

Nursing Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Reliable sources are very crucial in the health care sector since they help students to stay updated as well as enhancing their success in their classes. Relevant sources include websites, books, appropriate publications as well as online library. An effective research requires the student to define the topic, identification of concepts, and selection of relevant sources. Prior to any research, students should assess the reliability of sources and examine the sources to be used for specific tasks. Students can easily identify dubious materials by comparing multiple sources as their search approach. Therefore, they will be able to evaluate the worth of the information. The rationale of this paper is to describe appropriate use of wisdom continuum in nursing.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Access to updated, accurate and pertinent information is increasingly becoming crucial for the nurses to adopt evidence-based practice and ensure their knowledge is updated. Nurses use different information sources to realize their information requirements. The main question to be addressed in this paper is why it is vital to consider the clinical resolution making situation, when exploring the approaches that nurses connect with research based information. It is also crucial to consider the rapport between the usefulness and accessibility of date from distinct sources and the verdict made regarding the information. It may be argued that for people to persuade the nurses to effectively employ research evidence when making clinical decisions, they must acknowledge the rapport between verdict from the nurses and the data that enlightens them (Solomon, 2010).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Evidence-based decision making entails combining the information that crop up from patient choices, clinical expertise, and research facts within the framework of accessible resources. When making decisions, nurses choose from discrete range of alternatives (Thompson, 2004). The process of employing clinical judgment involves making decision from informed choices by evaluating the accessible data. Nurses should give appropriate weight to research evidence depending on its external and internal legitimacy. Integrating research facts into decision making involves composing a strategic clinical question regarding certain information need, evaluating the most appropriate information to solve that need, proper scrutiny of the obtained data, integrating the information into a plan, and weighing up the impact of the actions and decisions taken (Polit & Beck, 2010).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Decision making based on the information is a dogmatic method to making choices of how speculation can be employed to advance decision making. The central point is: how nurses utilize research based data in decision making? Little studies have been carried on this topic, apart from research that utilizes data from self report information from nurses as a basis of facts. Self report should not be considered as chief source of information to fill the gaps in support of ideal clinical observation and in-depth interviews, which nurses consider superior to address frequencies and types of varied decisions and practical information use (Polit & Beck, 2010). The major challenge of researching how individuals respond to inadequate evidence is that it is hard to identify the inadequacy of the needs. Researchers can only hypothesize nurses’ behavior by watching them or about what they say, since information need only subsist in the psyche of the person with the need. The need cannot be alienated from the intentions of evidence seeking actions. In developing motives, people make choices from values and beliefs that had formerly contented information requirements (Melnyk & Overholt, 2011).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   For proponents of fact based judgment making, the fundamental purpose for involving research based facts is to cut down uncertainty in clinical field. This implies that appropriate research increases the probability that the decision taken will give desired results. In some cases, new data can also elucidate or confirm present data, values and beliefs. Forms of clinical resolutions that nurses make offer an idea on how research information can help in decision making. Decisions are significant framework for utilization of information. The decisions that nurses are required make are work related, how they view their clinical duty, autonomy in operation, and the extent to which they believe they are influential and active decision makers. Nurses face decision complexity because of the following factors. Firstly, due to diverse and multiple decision objectives. Secondly, due to time constrain in decision making. Third, the conflicting decisio n aspects. Nurses face different challenges in decision making, since they have to make appropriate decision based on code of ethics. For a nurse to make appropriate decision making, rely on whether the decision lies within the continuum. The decision made also depend on the form of task appearance, the uncertainty of the task and the intricacy of the task. However, familiarity of a decision is not adequate to determine the form of reasoning involved (Burns & Grove, 2009).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In conclusion, it is vital to understand the link between the decision to be made by the nurse and the facts that enlighten them. Nurses use different information sources to realize their information requirements. Nurses should assign weight to the research evidence depending on its interior and exterior validity. The major challenges that face the nurse are the fact that it is not easy to recognize the information needs. Information need is linked to the motive of the nurse, thus nurses must be focused as they make their decisions. Decisions are crucial framework for the nurses especially for information use. References Burns, N., & Grove, S. K. (2009). The practice of nursing research: appraisal, synthesis, and generation of evidence (6th ed.). St. Louis, Mo.: Saunders/Elsevier. Evidence-Based Nursing. (n.d.). ebn. Retrieved September 9, 2014, from http://ebn.bmj.com/content/7/3/68.long Melnyk, B. M., & Overholt, E. (2011). Evidence-based practice in nursing & healthcare: a guide to best practice (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2010). Essentials of nursing research: appraising evidence for nursing practice (7th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Solomon, J. (2010). New look Evidence-Based Nursing. Evidence-Based Nursing, 13(1), 2-2. Thompson, C. (2004). Nurses, Information Use, And Clinical Decision Making–the Real World Potential For Evidence-based Decisions In Nursing. Evidence-Based Nursing, 7(3), 68-72. Source document

Democracy vs Autocracy Essay Example

Democracy vs Autocracy Essay Example Democracy vs Autocracy Paper Democracy vs Autocracy Paper It has become common today to dismiss autocracy on the basis on the basis of it having a single minded perspective. A single charismatic leader, making decisions for an inure nation or community might seem lucrative, but todays post modernist society, questions its viability. Todays rational minded individuals look Upton political structures for answers beyond poverty, inflation and basic public goods. They want answers to issues like climate change, sustainability and globalization. In such opinionate and sensitive topics, a wide array of representatives need to represent he vast motive-centric citizens of nations. The UN Report on the Gross National Happiness Index, holds 78% democratically run countries In Its top 50 countries, The question which then arises Is. Can a single leader solely represent the needs of a modern state? . Democracy is an efficient podium for fair representation of opinions in a modern state. Democracy is a form of government that is not attached to any pre-given political or ideological ends, but allows ends to be chosen by the majority vote of free citizens. Although today, the theoretical to realistic translation of democracy Is questionable, It t least firmly opinionated leaders, have to place their proposals In front of a forum, where unlike autocracy, opposition does exist and have a say. Rational minded individuals look Upton political structures for answers beyond poverty, inflation and basic public goods. They want answers to issues like climate change, sustainability and globalization. Ghana is on the verge of accomplishing a nearly-unprecedented feat for West Africa a reflected growth of Income and happiness in a transitioning democracy. Neighboring Mall, has not been successful in doing so In Its contrasting game structure. Ghana has been producing 011 since the early asses but the sector truly began to develop under democratic insights. However the largest oil reserves discovered in the country have only recently been discovered and the political consequences of oil revenue have yet to be seen. Ghana does have some ethnic variation, as well as a north-south, Christian-Muslim boundary like Nigeria and the Ivory Coast, but it has managed a representative approach which Is through a stable democracy. With growing education and public access to resources, citizens want a greater presentation of needs and opinion at the upper most decision making level in the political arena. Although autocracy, can allow a system where opinions can reach decision makers, it might not be necessary that the decision is taken considering the representations of opposition and minority. Democracy, in Its forms closest to theoretical, allows voice and space for opposition and minority. If not offered the same, democracy also allows freedom of rebellion, like that which Scotland recently went through in its independence referendum, due to lack of representation in Great Britains parliamentary structure.

The Redesigned SAT

The Redesigned SAT The SAT is a constantly evolving exam, but the changes to the exam that launched on March 5th, 2016 represented a fairly significant overhaul of the test. The SAT has been losing ground to the ACT for years. Critics of the SAT frequently noted that the exam was detached from the actual skills that matter most in college, and that the exam succeeded in predicting a students income level better than it predicted college readiness. The redesigned exam places the emphasis on language, mathematical, and analytical skills that are essential for college success, and the new exam is better aligned with high school curricula. Beginning with the March 2016 exam, students encountered these major changes: Selected locations offer a computer-based exam: Weve seen this coming for a long time. The GRE, after all, moved online years ago. With the new SAT, however, paper exams are also available. The writing section is optional: The SAT writing section never really caught on with college admissions offices, so its not surprising that it was axed. The exam will now take about three hours, with an additional 50-minute period for students opting to write the essay. If this sounds like the ACT, well, yes it does. The Critical Reading section is now the Evidence-Based Reading and Writing section: Students  need to interpret and synthesize material from sources in the sciences, history, social studies, humanities, and career-related sources. Some passages include graphics and data for students to analyze. Passage from the Founding Documents of America: The exam does not have a history section, but readings now draw from important documents such as the U.S. Declaration of Independence, Constitution, and Bill of Rights, as well as documents from around the globe related to issues of freedom and human dignity. A new approach to vocabulary: Instead of focusing on rarely used vocabulary words such as mendacious and impecunious, the new exam focuses on words that students are likely to use in college. The College Board gives synthesis and empirical as examples of the type of vocabulary words the exam will include. Scoring returned to a 1600-point scale: When the essay went, so did 800 points from the 2400-point system. Math and Reading/Writing will each be worth 800 points, and the optional essay will be a separate score. The math section allows a calculator for certain portions only: Dont plan to rely on that gadget for finding all your answers! The math section has less breadth and focuses on three key areas: The College Board identifies these areas as Problem Solving and Data Analysis, the Heart of Algebra, and Passport to Advanced Math. The goal here is to align the exam with the skills that are  most useful in preparing students for college-level mathematics. No penalty for guessing: I always hating having to guess whether I should guess or not. But I guess that isnt  an issue with the new exam. The optional essay asks students to analyze a source: This is far different from the typical prompts on the previous  SAT. With the new exam, students read a passage and then use close-reading skills to explain how the author builds his or her argument. The essay prompt is the same on all examsonly the passage will change. Do all of these changes give well-to-do students less of an advantage on the exam? Probably notwell-funded school districts will generally better prepare students for the exam, and access to private test tutoring will still be a factor. Standardized tests will always privilege the privileged. That said, the changes do make the test better correlate with the skills taught in high school, and the new exam may actually better predict college success than the previous SAT. It will, of course, be many years before we have enough data to see if the intentions behind the new exam are realized. Learn more about the changes to the exam on the College Board website: The Redesigned SAT. Related SAT Articles: Should You Take the SAT or ACT?When Should You Take the SAT?Low SAT Scores? What Now?SAT Scores for the Ivy LeagueSAT Scores for Top Public UniversitiesSAT Scores for Top Engineering Schools